Sir Isaac Newton, a British mathematician, physicist, astronomer, theologian, and writer, was born on 25 December 1642 in the United Kingdom. He was renowned for building the first practical reflecting telescope and developing a complex theory of color based on prismatic division. Stephen Hawking described him as "the most influential scientist of all time". His work on light is included in his renowned book, "Optics", published in 1704. Sadly, he passed away at the age of 84 on 20 March 1726.
In addition to his work in calculus, Sir Isaac Newton made significant contributions to the study of power series, extended the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, formulated the empirical law of cooling, calculated the speed of sound theoretically for the first time, and introduced the concept of a Newtonian fluid. He also developed a method to approximate the roots of functions and classified most cubic plane curves.
Isaac Newton was a Research Fellow at Trinity College and the Second Lucas Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge University, however, he was an unorthodox Christian who refused to become a priest for the Church of England, which was quite unusual for their faculty during that time.
Aside from his groundbreaking work in the mathematical sciences, Newton devoted much of his life to alchemy and biblical chronology, yet many of his findings on these topics were not made public until after his passing. He was politically and personally affiliated with the Whig Party.
Newton served as a Cambridge University member from 1689 to 1690 and between 1701 and 1702. During his last thirty years in London, he served as Guardian from 1696 to 1699 and Master of the Royal Mint, as well as President of the Royal Society from 1703 to 1727. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705.
As a child, Isaac Newton was born prematurely and was still a child. His father passed away three months ago. His birthday is on December 25, 1642. Hannah Ayscough reported fitting him in a quart cup when he was a child. When Newton was three years old, his mother remarried and lived with her new husband, Pastor Barnabas Smith, and left her son with his grandmother Margaret Escal, formerly known as Bryce.
Newton harbored negative feelings towards his mother's second marriage, and this is made evident in the list of offenses he had committed before the age of 19. Mary, Benjamin, and Hannah were the three children born to Newton's mother in the union. From 12-17 years old, he attended King School in Grantham and learned Latin and Greek, as well as obtaining basic knowledge of mathematics.
After being expelled from school in October 1659, he returned to Woolsthorpe Colsterworth. The second widowed mother of his child tried to make him a farmer, an occupation he hated, but Henry Stokes, the principal of King's School, convinced her to return to school. The education of Isaac Newton played a major role in shaping his life, partly as a means of retaliation against campus bullies. He distinguished himself primarily by building sundials and windmill models.
Isaac Newton is widely acknowledged to have significantly advanced the study of mathematics in his day. His work on this subject, commonly referred to as 'fluxional calculus', was documented in his October 1666 manuscript, published as part of Newton's Mathematics Papers.
In June 1669, a copy of his book De analysis per equations was sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins and Barrow referred to him glowingly in a letter sent to Collins later that same year. This eventually led to the Leibniz-Newton calculus debate over which mathematician had developed the foundation for calculus first.
Most modern historians believe that they both made independent discoveries, yet their mathematical symbols are notably different. Newton remained silent on the subject until 1693 and only provided a full explanation by 1704 during this period, however, Leibniz began to publish extensively on the topic, with his notation and differential method gaining widespread acceptance among mathematicians across Europe.
After 1820, they were also adopted by British mathematicians. Newton explored similar ideas in 1671 with his 'method of the first and last ratio', which made use of limiting values and geometric forms of calculus. He supported his reasoning through demonstration, in addition to remarking that it was “an indivisible method of doing the same”.
Newton remained silent on the subject until 1693 and only provided a full explanation by 1704 during this period, however, Leibniz began to publish extensively on the topic, with his notation and differential method gaining widespread acceptance among mathematicians across Europe.
After 1820, they were also adopted by British mathematicians. Newton explored similar ideas in 1671 with his 'method of the first and last ratio', which made use of limiting values and geometric forms of calculus. He supported his reasoning through demonstration, in addition to remarking that it was “an indivisible method of doing the same”.
In 1679, Newton referred to Kepler's laws of planetary motion while returning to his celestial mechanics' research. It was during this time that he began considering the implications of gravity on planetary orbits. As a result, Hooker briefly corresponded with Hook between 1679 and 1680, the latter having been appointed to administer the Royal Society letter to obtain Newton's contribution.
In the winter of 1680-81, a comet sparked further interest in Newton's astronomical studies, prompting him to contact John Flamsteed about it. After conversing with Hooke, he established that an elliptical orbit is generated by a centripetal force proportionally inverse to the square of the radius vector.
In De motu corporum in gyrum, Newton reported his findings to Edmund Halley and the Royal Society. Approximately nine sheets of paper contain Newton's nucleus that he developed and expanded to form the principle, which was sent to the Royal Society in December 1684. It was published on July 5, 1687, with Edmund Halley's encouragement and financial assistance.
In this work, Newton presented three fundamental laws of motion, which describe the interactions between an object, applied force, and resulting motion. Subsequently, these laws served as the groundwork for classical mechanics and further evolved into many advancements during the industrial revolution. These principles are still used as the cornerstone for current non-relativistic technologies today - have remained unchanged for over two centuries. Moreover, Newton named the effect of gravity 'gravitas' and defined its universal law.
In 1666, Newton demonstrated that when light passes through a prism, the color spectrum leaving the minimum deviation position is rectangular - regardless of whether or not the incident beam was circular. This finding made him conclude that color is a fundamental element of light, and this has been contested ever since.
From 1670 to 1672, Newton gave lectures on refraction which included a method to recombine polychromatic spectrum produced by a prism into white light using a combination of lenses and prisms. Recent studies show that these accomplishments were a result of what has been termed as 'particle alchemy' by Newton.
Newton demonstrated that color does not change its properties when it is divided and shone on multiple objects. In reflection, refraction, or transmission, the color remains the same. This experiment resulted in his Colour Theory which states that the color of an object is reliant on the light interacting with it, rather than its inherent color.
This discovery gave rise to Newton's Reflecting Telescope; a telescope that used a mirror instead of a lens to prevent the scattering of colored light. The design of this invention posed challenges due to the need for suitable mirror materials and modeling techniques. Ultimately, it became known as the Newtonian Telescope and functions as the first known reflecting telescope. Newton applied custom-made, high-reflection metal compositions to grind his mirrors and judged the quality of his telescope optics using Newton's rings.
In 1668, he was able to build the first reflecting telescope which was approximately eight inches long and provided a clearer, wider image. His work caught the eye of the Royal Society which requested to see the device in 1671. He then published his notes on colors (De colores) in Optics and received criticism from Robert Hooke which caused him to withdraw from any public debates.
A brief exchange between Newton and Hooker occurred in 1679/80 due to Hooker's appointment as a correspondent for The Royal Society and a letter aimed at gaining Newton's input for their Transactions. This ignites motivation for Newton to prove that planetary orbits take an elliptical shape due to centripetal force which is inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector, however, relations between him and Hooker remained sour until Hooker's death.
After learning about who Newton is, we will learn about his personal life. Although some people claim that Newton was engaged, Newton never married. Voltaire, a French writer, and philosopher, who was in London at Newton's funeral, claimed that he had never been affected by passion, was not affected by the weakness of mankind, or engaged in any transactions with women.
Keynes and other writers have commented on the close friendship between Isaac Newton and Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. Evidence of their relationship can be found in letters they exchanged up until 1693, when it ended abruptly, coinciding with Newton's descent into mental illness.
During this time Newton sent strange accusations to his friends Samuel Pepys and John Locke, the latter of whom he accused of trying to make him suffer. In 2015, Nobel Laureate in Physics Steven Weinberg labeled Newton an "unpleasant opponent" who could easily become a foe, particularly pointing to his behavior towards Robert Hooker and Gottfried William Leibniz.
Upon Newton's death at his London home on March 20, 1727, his body was laid to rest in Westminster Abbey. It is said that Voltaire attended the funeral. As Isaac had no family of his own, John Conduit and Catherine Button inherited most of his possessions upon his passing. An examination of his hair revealed traces of mercury, possibly due to experiments with alchemy, which can explain certain peculiarities during the later stages of life. Thus, we can answer the query: “how did Newton die”.
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